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Participatory action research PAR is an approach to action research emphasizing participation and action by members of communities affected by that research. It seeks to understand the world by trying to change it, collaboratively and following reflection. PAR emphasizes collective inquiry and experimentation grounded in experience and social history.
Within a PAR process, "communities of inquiry and action evolve and address questions and issues that are significant for those who participate as co-researchers". PAR practitioners buy action research paper a concerted effort to integrate three basic aspects of their work: participation life in society and democracyaction buy action research paper with experience and historyand research soundness in thought and the growth of knowledge.
This means that PAR is not a monolithic body of ideas and methods but rather a pluralistic orientation to knowledge making and social change.
PAR has multiple progenitors and resists definition. It is a broad tradition of collective self-experimentation backed up by evidential reasoning, fact-finding and learning. All formulations of PAR have in common the idea that research and action must be done 'with' people and not 'on' or 'for' people. Inquiry based on PAR principles makes sense of the world through collective efforts to transform it, as opposed to simply observing and studying human behaviour and people's views about reality, in the hope that meaningful change will eventually emerge.
PAR draws on a wide range of influences, both among those with professional training and those who draw on their life experience and those of their ancestors. Many draw on the work of Paulo Freire[14] new thinking on adult education research, [15] the Civil Rights Movement[16] South Asian social movements such as the Bhoomi Sena, [3] [17] and key initiatives such as the Participatory Research Network buy action research paper in and based in New Delhi.
His recommendations to researchers committed to the struggle for justice and greater democracy in all spheres, including the business of science, are useful for all researchers and echo the teaching from many schools of research:, buy action research paper. In the UK and North America the work of Kurt Lewin [21] and the Tavistock Institute in the s has been influential. However alternative traditions of PAR, begin with processes that include more bottom-up organising and popular education than were envisaged by Lewin.
PAR can be thought of as a guiding paradigm to influence and democratize the creation of knowledge making, and ground it in real community needs and learning. Knowledge production controlled by elites can sometimes further oppress marginalized populations.
PAR can be a way of overcoming the ineffectiveness and elitism of conventional schooling and science, and the negative effects of market forces and industry on the workplace, community life and sustainable livelihoods. Fundamentally, PAR pushes against the notion that experiential distance is required for objectivity in scientific and sociological research. Instead, PAR values embodied knowledge beyond "gated communities" of scholarship, bridging academia and social movements such that research and advocacy — often thought to be mutually exclusive — become intertwined.
These principles and the ongoing evolution of PAR have had a lasting legacy in fields ranging from problem solving in the workplace to community development and sustainable livelihoods, education, public health, buy action research paper research, civic engagement and criminal justice. It is important to note that these contributions are subject to many tensions and debates on key issues such as the role of clinical psychologycritical social thinking and the pragmatic concerns of organizational learning in PAR theory and practice.
Labels used to define each approach PAR, critical PAR, buy action research paper, action research, psychosociology, sociotechnical analysis, etc. reflect these tensions and point to major differences that may outweigh the similarities.
While a common denominator, the combination of participation, action and research reflects the fragile unity of traditions whose diverse ideological and organizational contexts kept them separate and largely ignorant of one another for several decades. The following review focuses on traditions that incorporate the three pillars of PAR. Closely related approaches that overlap but do not bring the three components together are left out. Applied researchfor instance, is not necessarily committed to participatory principles and may be initiated and controlled mostly by experts, with the implication that 'human subjects' are not invited to play a key role in science building and the framing of the research questions.
As in mainstream science, this process "regards people as sources of information, as having bits of isolated knowledge, buy action research paper, but they are neither expected nor apparently assumed able to analyze a given social reality". PAR, in contrast, has evolved from the work of activists more concerned with empowering marginalized peoples than with generating academic knowledge for its own sake, buy action research paper.
Action research in the workplace took its initial inspiration from Lewin's work on organizational development and Dewey 's emphasis on learning from experience. Lewin's seminal contribution involves a flexible, scientific approach to planned change that proceeds through a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of 'a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action', towards an organizational 'climate' of democratic leadership and responsible participation that promotes critical self-inquiry and collaborative work.
Lewin's understanding of action-research coincides with key ideas and practices developed at the influential Tavistock Institute created in in the UK and National Training Laboratories NTL in the US. An important offshoot of Tavistock thinking and practise is the sociotechnical systems perspective on workplace dynamics, guided by the idea that greater productivity or efficiency does not hinge on improved technology alone.
Improvements in organizational life call instead for the interaction and 'joint optimization' of the social and technical components of workplace activity. In this perspective, the best match between the social and technical factors of organized work lies in principles of 'responsible group autonomy' and industrial democracyas opposed to deskilling and top-down bureaucracy guided by Taylor 's scientific management and linear chain of command.
NTL played a central role in the evolution of experiential learning and the application of behavioral science to improving organizations. Process consultation, team building, conflict management, and workplace group democracy and autonomy have become recurrent themes in the prolific body of literature and practice known as organizational development OD. On the whole, however, science tends to be a means, not an end.
Workplace and organizational learning interventions are first and foremost problem-based, action-oriented and client-centred. Tavistock broke new ground in other ways, by meshing general medicine and psychiatry with Freudian and Jungian psychology and the social sciences to help the British army face various human resource problems.
This gave rise to a field of scholarly research and professional intervention loosely known as psychosociology, particularly influential in France CIRFIP.
Several schools of thought and 'social clinical' practise belong to this tradition, all of which are critical of the experimental and expert mindset of social psychology.
In addition to this humanistic and democratic agenda, psychosociology uses concepts of psychoanalytic inspiration to address interpersonal relations and the interplay between self and group. It acknowledges the role of the unconscious in social behaviour and collective representations and the inevitable expression of transference and countertransference —language and behaviour that redirect unspoken feelings and anxieties to other people or physical objects taking part in the action inquiry.
The works of Balint, [52] Jaques[53] and Bion [54] are turning points in the formative years of psychosociology.
Commonly cited authors in France include Amado, [55] Barus-Michel, [56] [57] Dubost, [58] Enriquez, [59] Lévy, [60] [61] Gaujelac, [62] and Giust-Desprairies. Key differences between these schools and the methods they use stem from the weight they assign to the analyst's expertise in making sense of group behaviour and views and also the social aspects of group behaviour and affect.
Another issue is the extent to which the intervention is critical of broader institutional and social systems. The use of psychoanalytic concepts and the relative weight of effort dedicated to research, training and action also vary.
PAR emerged in the postwar years as an important contribution to intervention and self-transformation within groups, organizations and communities. It has left a singular mark on the field of rural and community development, especially in the Global South, buy action research paper. Tools and concepts for doing research with people, including "barefoot scientists" and grassroots "organic intellectuals" see Gramsciare now promoted and implemented by many international development agencies, researchers, consultants, civil society and local community organizations around the world.
This has resulted in countless experiments in diagnostic assessment, scenario planning [73] and project evaluation in areas ranging from fisheries [74] and mining [75] to forestry, [76] plant breeding, buy action research paper, [77] agriculture, [78] farming systems research and extension, [7] [79] [80] watershed management, [81] resource mapping, [10] [82] [83] environmental conflict and natural resource management, buy action research paper, [2] [84] [85] [86] land rights, [87] appropriate technology, [88] [89] local economic development, [90] [91] communication, [92] [93] tourism, [94] buy action research paper for sustainability, [95] biodiversity [96] [97] and climate change.
On the whole, PAR applications in these fields are committed to problem solving and adaptation to nature at the household or community level, using friendly methods of scientific thinking and experimentation adapted to support rural participation and sustainable livelihoods. In education, PAR practitioners inspired by the ideas of critical pedagogy and adult education are firmly committed to the politics of emancipatory action formulated by Freire[26] with a focus on dialogical reflection and action as means to overcome relations of domination and subordination between oppressors and the oppressed, colonizers and the colonized.
The approach implies that "the silenced are not just incidental to the curiosity of the researcher but are the masters of inquiry into the underlying causes of the events in their world", buy action research paper.
Community-based participatory research and service-learning are a more recent attempts to reconnect academic interests with education and community development. Service learning or education is a closely related endeavour designed to encourage students to actively apply knowledge and skills to local situations, in response to local needs and with the active involvement of community members, buy action research paper.
Collaborative research in education is community-based research where pre-university teachers are the community and scientific knowledge is built on top of teachers' own interpretation of their experience and reality, with or without immediate engagement in transformative action. PAR has made important inroads in the field of public health, in areas such as disaster reliefcommunity-based rehabilitationbuy action research paper, accident prevention, hospital care and drug prevention.
Because of its link to radical democratic struggles of the Civil Rights Movement and other social movements in South Asia and Latin America see abovePAR is seen as a threat to their authority by some established elites.
An international alliance university-based participatory researchers, ICPHR, omit the word "Action", preferring the less controversial term "participatory research". Photovoice is one of the strategies used in PAR and is especially useful in the public health domain. Keeping in mind the purpose of PAR, which is to benefit communities, Photovoice buy action research paper the same to happen through the media of photography.
Photovoice considers helping community issues and problems reach policy makers as its primary goal. Participatory programs within the workplace involve employees within all levels of a workplace organization, from management to front-line staff, in the design and implementation of health and safety interventions.
Such factors include a better identification of potential barriers and facilitators, buy action research paper, a greater willingness to accept interventions than those imposed strictly from upper management, and enhanced buy-in to intervention design, resulting in greater sustainability though promotion and acceptance.
Feminist research and women's development theory [] also contributed to rethinking the role of scholarship in challenging existing regimes of power, using qualitative and interpretive methods that emphasize subjectivity and self-inquiry rather than the quantitative approach of mainstream science. Novel approaches to PAR in the public sphere help scale up the engaged inquiry process beyond small group dynamics.
Touraine and others thus propose a 'sociology of intervention' involving the creation of artificial spaces for movement activists and non-activists to debate issues of public concern. In this approach to collaborative inquiry, buy action research paper, research is actively assisted by volunteers who form an active public or network of contributing individuals. Web 2. They extend principles of open-source governance to democratic institutions, allowing citizens to actively engage in wiki-based processes of virtual journalism, public debate and policy development.
In the same spirit, discursive or deliberative democracy calls for buy action research paper discussion, buy action research paper, transparency and pluralism in political decision-making, lawmaking and institutional life.
It involves people selected at random from a local or national population who are provided opportunities to question 'witnesses' and collectively form a 'judgment' on the issue at hand. ICTs, open politics and deliberative democracy usher in new strategies to engage buy action research paper, scientists, civil society organizations and interested citizens in policy-related discussions of science and technology.
These trends represent an invitation to explore novel ways of doing PAR on a broader scale, buy action research paper. Compared to other fields, PAR frameworks in criminal justice are relatively new. But growing support for community-based alternatives to the criminal justice system has sparked interest in PAR in criminological settings.
Because system-impacted people hold experiential knowledge of the conditions and practices of the justice system, buy action research paper, they may be able to more effectively expose and articulate problems with that system. Proponents of PAR in criminal justice believe that including those most impacted by the justice system in research is crucial because the presence of these individuals precludes the possibility of misunderstanding or compounding harms of the justice system in that research.
Participants in PAR may also hold knowledge or education in more traditional academic fields, like law, policy or government that can inform criminological research. But Buy action research paper in criminology bridges the epistemological gap between knowledge gained through academia and through lived experience, connecting research to justice reform. Given the often delicate power balances between researchers and participants in PAR, there have been calls for a code of ethics to guide the relationship between researchers and participants in a variety of PAR fields.
Norms in research ethics involving humans include respect for the autonomy of individuals and groups to deliberate about a decision and act on it. This principle is usually expressed through the free, informed and ongoing consent of those participating in research or those representing them in the case of persons lacking the capacity to decide.
Another mainstream principle is the welfare of participants who should not be exposed to any unfavourable balance of benefits and risks with participation in research aimed at the advancement of knowledge, especially those that are serious and probable. Since privacy is a factor that contributes to people's welfare, confidentiality obtained through the collection and use of data that are anonymous e.
survey data or anonymized tends to be the norm. Finally, the principle of justice—equal treatment and concern for fairness and equity—calls for measures of appropriate inclusion and mechanisms to address conflicts of interests. For one thing the people involved are not mere 'subjects' or 'participants'. They act instead as key partners in an inquiry process that may take place outside the walls of academic or corporate science.
As Canada's Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans suggests, buy action research paper, PAR requires that the terms and conditions of the collaborative process be set out in a research agreement or protocol based on mutual understanding of the project goals and buy action research paper between the parties, subject to preliminary discussions and negotiations.
While they are legalistic in their genesis, they are usually based on interpersonal relationships and a history of trust rather than the language of legal forms and contracts. Another implication of PAR ethics is that partners must protect themselves and each other against potential risks, by mitigating the negative consequences of their collaborative work and pursuing buy action research paper welfare of all parties concerned.
Given their commitment to social justice and transformative action, some PAR projects may be critical of existing social structures and struggle against the policies and interests of individuals, groups and institutions accountable for their actions, creating circumstances of danger.
Public-facing action can also be dangerous for some marginalized populations, such as survivors of domestic violence. In some fields of PAR it is believed that an ethics of participation should go beyond avoidance of harm.
T7: Collecting Data for Action Research (2018)
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